Key switches
"Dome-switch" keyboards (sometimes incorrectly referred to as a membrane keyboards) are the most common type in use in the 2000s. When a key is pressed, it pushes down on a rubber dome sitting beneath the key. A conductive contact on the underside of the dome touches (and hence connects) a pair of conductive lines on the circuit below. This bridges the gap between them and allows electric current to flow (the open circuit is closed). A scanning signal is emitted by the chip along the pairs of lines in the matrix circuit which connects to all the keys. When the signal in one pair becomes different, the chip generates a "make code" corresponding to the key connected to that pair of lines. Keycaps are also required for most types of keyboards; while modern keycaps are typically surface-marked, they can also be 2-shot molded, or engraved, or they can be made of transparent material with printed paper inserts
Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a "buckling spring" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, pressing a rubber dome, whose inside is coated with conductive graphite, which connects two leads below, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed.[2][3]When a key is pressed and the circuit is completed, the code generated is sent to the computer either via a keyboard cable (using on-off electrical pulses to represent bits) or over a wireless connection.
A chip inside the computer receives the signal bits and decodes them into the appropriate keypress. The computer then decides what to do on the basis of the key pressed (e.g. display a character on the screen, or perform some action). When the key is released, a break code (different than the make code) is sent to indicate the key is no longer pressed. If the break code is missed (e.g. due to a keyboard switch) it is possible for the keyboard controller to believe the key is pressed down when it is not, which is why pressing then releasing the key again will release the key (since another break code is sent). Other types of keyboards function in a similar manner, the main differences being how the individual key-switches work. For more on this subject refer to the article on keyboard technology.
Certain key presses are special, namely Ctrl-Alt-Delete and SysRq, but what makes them special is a function of software. In the PC architecture, the keyboard controller (the component in the computer that receives the make and break codes) sends the computer's CPU a hardware interrupt whenever a key is pressed or released. The CPU's interrupt routine which handles these interrupts usually just places the key's code in a queue, to be handled later by other code when it gets around to it, then returns to whatever the computer was doing before. The special keys cause the interrupt routine to take a different "emergency" exit instead. This more trusted route is much harder to intercept.
The layout of a keyboard can be changed by remapping the keys. When you remap a key, you tell the computer a new meaning for the pressing of that key. Keyboard remapping is supported at a driver-level configurable within the operating system, or as add-ons to the existing programs. For Windows, Microsoft provides a downloadable tool called Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator, and there are several other software programs, including SharpKeys and KeyTweak.
Control processor
The modern PC keyboard has more than switches. It also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.
A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.
When pressing a keyboard key, the key "bounces" like a ball against its contacts several times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it reverts to the uncontacted state. If the computer was watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what is typically a solid contact.
Some low-quality keyboards suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys are pressed in quick succession); some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. This is undesirable for games (designed for multiple keypresses, e.g. casting a spell while holding down keys to run) and undesirable for extremely fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys). A common side effect of this shortcoming is called "phantom key blocking": on some keyboards, pressing three keys simultaneously sometimes resulted in a 4th keypress being registered. Modern keyboards prevent this from happening by blocking the 3rd key in certain key combinations, but while this prevents phantom input, it also means that when two keys are depressed simultaneously, many of the other keys on the keyboard will not respond until one of the two depressed keys is lifted. With better keyboards designs, this seldom happens in office programs, but it remains a problem in games even on expensive keyboards, due to wildly different and/or configurable key/command layouts in different games.
Connection types
There are several ways of connecting a keyboard using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.
Wireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port (see Connection types above). The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "eavesdropping" by hackers.[4]
Alternative text-entering methods
An on-screen keyboard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility.
Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.
Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). The technology has already reached an impressive state and is already implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) it is starting to replace the keyboard; however, it does not threaten to replace keyboards entirely anytime soon. It can, however, interpret commands (for example, "close window" or "undo that") in addition to text. Therefore, it has theoretical potential to replace keyboards entirely (whereas OCR replaces them only for a certain kind of task).
Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards. FITALY (http://www.FITALY.com) is a stylus/one-finger keyboard that can yield 50+ WPM. The key is to stare at the keyboard, not the screen (as in traditional touch typing). No memorization of layout is required. It is engineered for rapid text input (e.g., some 85% of English words are visible at the center of the keyboard). It is available for many mobile and laptop devices.
Other issues
Keystroke hacking
Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legitimately to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for law-breaking. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypassing other security measures.
Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer’s operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.
Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window.
Electromagnetic waves released every time key is pressed on the keyboard can be detected by a nearby antenna and interpreted by computer software to work out exactly what was typed.
Physical injury
The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.
Some Adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic keyboard layout such as Dvorak or Colemak may reduce the risk of injury. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad such as a Smart Cat trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.
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